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What Makes The Columbia River Basin
Unique And How We Benefit

The Columbia River is the fourth largest river in North America. Originating in British Columbia, it flows 1,214 miles to the Pacific Ocean near Astoria, Oregon. Size, however, is only one aspect of what makes the river particularly unique. Uniqueness is also evident by looking at the Columbia River Basin. The Basin's geologic history, topography and hydrologic cycle provided settlers with an abundance of natural resources. Precious metals and fertile soils are part of the story. So is the abundance of fish and wildlife within the area. With mankind's ability to tap into these natural resources, Northwesterners have taken advantage of opportunities to improve their quality of life and economic well being.

This section describes some of the benefits which stem from society's interaction with the Columbia River Basin. These benefits include low cost and reliable electricity, flood control, irrigation, navigation and recreation. The reason for focusing on these benefits, unlike forestry and mining, is that they relate most directly to society's use of the Columbia River system.

Before looking at these benefits, let's first take a closer look at how the Basin was formed and nature's continuing interaction with it. Within the Basin, there are 2,500 square miles of waterways and lakes. The Columbia River and its tributaries account for about 219,000 sq. miles of drainage in seven western states. This drainage occurs within the context of an intricate relationship between the hydrologic cycle and the resulting water that flows through the topography of the region. Understanding this relationship and how people have chosen to interact and influence it is critical to understanding both the past and future development of the Northwest.

Let's begin by looking at the topography of the Columbia River Basin. Physically, the Basin consists of the Rocky Mountains to the east and north, the Cascade Range on the west, and the Great Basin to the south. The Columbia River begins its flow through this Basin from Canada's Rocky Mountain Range and eventually becomes the border between Oregon and Washington. Along the way, the Columbia is fed by a number of major tributaries. The three largest include the Kootenai, the Clark Fork-Pend Oreille and the Snake rivers. Others include the Payette, the Sultan, the Cowlitz, the Santiam and the Willamette. While each of these tributaries has its own unique characteristics, the Columbia River and the Basin represent the larger whole to which they are all connected.

Over millions of years a series of cataclysmic events shaped the Basin's topography. During the Eocene and Oligocene periods that date back 20 to 50 million years, there were tectonic shifts that helped form mountainous areas and volcanic activity that resulted in floods of molten lava. Seventeen million years ago, scientists believe a giant meteorite struck southeastern Oregon, causing floods of basalt lava. As this lava spilled across the western lowlands, the Columbia Plateau began to form. When the lava cooled and cracked, it formed vertical columns of basalt that are still visible today. These volcanic fires were followed by the deep freeze of the ice age.

The big glaciers of the last ice age covered all the northern fringe of Washington and Idaho. In Washington, these glaciers advanced down the western part of the Okanogan Valley about as far south as Chelan. In Idaho, a finger of the ice sheet came down to Sandpoint, where it blocked the mouth of the Clark-Fork River. In so doing, an ice dam one-half mile high was created.

This ice dam resulted in the creation of Lake Missoula, which was 2,000 feet deep and stretched hundreds of miles into Montana. Approximately the size of Lake Ontario, about 15,000 years ago the dam burst all at once and Lake Missoula was drained. As the resulting flood carved out 50 cubic miles of earth, deep channels were formed and areas such as the Columbia Gorge were further widened and shaped. It dug riverless canyons such as Dry Coulee, Spring Coulee and Moses Coulee in a matter of days. And it formed the Grand Coulee, which is fifty miles long, up to six miles wide and nine hundred feet deep.

Floods also swept into Oregon, covering much of the Willamette Valley. Where Portland stands today, flood waters were thought to be 400 feet deep. Scientists now believe such floods occurred repeatedly as the continental ice sheet came and receded. With all these cataclysmic events, the Northwest's topography took shape.

As water flows through this topography, the continental divide causes the river system to "tilt" toward the Pacific Ocean. Entering the United States in Western Montana, the continental divide stretches south to the Idaho border. The divide follows this border east into Wyoming and then heads south through Colorado. Rivers west of the divide, such as the Columbia, flow through the region's topography and toward the Pacific Ocean.

As the water flows to the Pacific, the Columbia River is second only to the Missouri-Mississippi River System in terms of annual run-off. But because of the region's topography and its gradients, water flows through the Columbia River System like no other river system in the United States. This unique combination and the hydrologic cycle is the reason that almost half of all hydroelectric generation in this nation comes from the Northwest.

The importance of the hydrologic cycle in creating a unique relationship between water flow and topography cannot be underestimated. To the west of the Cascades, precipitation largely falls in the form of rain during the winter. To the east of the Cascade Mountain Range, precipitation largely falls in the form of snow during the winter months. Stored in deep snowpacks found in mountainous areas, spring time warmth is the catalyst for water being released into the river system. This runoff causes rivers to rise and streamflows to peak during May or early June. In fact, 60 percent of natural runoff happens from May through July.

Annual precipitation, of course, is not constant. Nor are variations in sunlight and air temperature. So how much a river rises, or if it floods, largely depends on how these variables mix together during the year. By looking at streamflows at the Dalles in Oregon, one can see how much the hydrologic cycle can vary from year to year.

Flow on the Columbia River is generally measured at The Dalles, Oregon. Historic records show an annual pattern with peak
flows in the late spring. Source: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Army Corp of Engineers, and Bonneville Power
Administration. The Columbia River System: The Inside Story, Portland OR, 1991, p.6

As the hydrologic cycle occurs, 130 million acre feet of runoff flows through the topography of the Columbia river system annually. By comparison, that is more than eight times the runoff than the Colorado River System.

Technology has been society's tool for using the power of this relationship between water and topography to maximum advantage. Combined with the Northwest's other natural resources, such as fertile soil and precious metals, settlers were drawn to the Basin. The following statistics provide some economic perspective:

* The gross national product for the Northwest grew from a few thousand dollars in 1792 to more than $300 billion in 1992.

* After adjusting for inflation, the combined personal income of Northwesterners doubled from 1929 to 1949, doubled again by 1969, and doubled again by 1989.

In short, the Columbia River Basin is an essential reason for the Northwest being a dynamic and highly prosperous region within the nation and the world. Hydropower, flood control, irrigation, navigation and recreation are specific benefits that the uniqueness of the Basin and its river system provide.

Hydropower

Up to 80% of the electricity in the Northwest is produced by hydropower. Historically, hydropower has been one of the most inexpensive and most efficient sources of electricity in the region. In the Northwest, for example, electricity from hydropower typically costs $10 per megawatt hour to produce. This compares to $60, $45 and $25 per megawatt hour to produce electricity, respectively, at nuclear, coal and natural gas plants. To determine these price comparisons, planners calculate what it costs to build, maintain and operate these differing generation facilities.

This source of inexpensive electricity was a major attraction for energy intensive industries such as aluminum, food processing, and the production of plutonium for national defense. Other industries, such as aerospace, were attracted to this area beca use they wanted proximity to a resource, in this case aluminum, being manufactured in the Northwest. In addition, the mining industry was a major beneficiary because inexpensive electricity greatly reduced the costs of extracting various metals.

Individuals benefited as well. For instance, hydropower was the first source of electricity for many rural areas. Further, the cost of owning and maintaining a more comfortable home was less. Specifically, inexpensive electricity meant installing electric heaters, dryers, stoves and other appliances was in easy reach of the many, not the few.

Today, natural resource and manufacturing industries are becoming less vital to the Northwest's economy. Indeed, one forecast shows that the non-manufacturing share of total regional employment could grow to nearly 89 percent by the year 2015. As a result, the Northwest's traditional dependence on inexpensive electricity to fuel the economy has declined somewhat.

On the other hand, the Northwest's population is continuing to boom. From 1980 to 2010, population is expected to increase from eight to almost twelve million people. Each of these individuals is a consumer of electricity. To continue to receive the individual benefits of inexpensive electricity, maintaining hydropower as a resource is as important as ever.

And while the dollar cost of hydropower is highlighted here, the environmental costs and benefits of this renewable resource are very important as well.

Flood Control

Historically, the two priorities for coordinated management of the Columbia River system have been electric generation and flood control. Other priorities, such as irrigation, navigation and recreation, are largely carried out within the context of meeting these needs. Most recently, impacts on salmon have resulted in the National Marine Fisheries Services stating that anadromous fish recovery should receive priority over all river uses except flood control.

Understanding the importance of flood control is similar to understanding the importance of insurance. Until you lose something, you do not appreciate how important it is. In 1948, the importance of flood control became a priority after Vanport, Oregon was destroyed by a flood. The Army Corps of Engineers responded by developing a multiple-use reservoir storage plan for the Columbia River Basin.

A treaty with Canada and the evolution of sophisticated planning and interagency cooperation have resulted in up to 39.7 million acre-feet of storage space being available for flood control. That is enough water to cover the Northwest four inches deep in water. For the Columbia River Basin, the need for reservoir space to help reduce the risk of flooding is most important during two seasons of the year: in winter, when there are rain-induced floods, and in the spring and early summer, when there are floods from snowmelt and rain.

By manipulating the amount of water in reservoirs throughout the Basin, system operators are able to create a balance between releasing water to produce hydropower when it is most needed, and reducing the potential for flooding. Looking at average river flows at the Dalles Dam over the course of the year is one way to see the difference between unrestricted water flow and the use of reservoirs to make this flow more constant. Further, reservoir storage is also assisted by a system of levees, flood walls, bank protection, and various types of land use regulation.

Source: Northwest Power Planning Council. Fourth Northwest Power Plan, Portland OR, March 13, 1996, p.4-5

Forty-eight years of developing this coordinated approach came together as never before in February, 1996. Heavy rains and melting snowpack due to mild temperatures created the worst flooding in over 30 years in the Northwest. Government agencies and non-federal hydro operators worked together to reduce flood damage by an estimated 3.2 billion dollars. Because the Northwest had a flood control plan in place, the evening news did not show downtown Portland six feet deep in water. Some of the details of how the flood of 1996 was contained are remarkable. Although nobody expected these types of floods to occur for another several years, floods at the end of 1996 reminded everyone that the importance of flood control is always present.

Navigation

Every year, the Columbia and Snake Rivers carry 17 million tons of cargo to and from the Pacific Ocean along a 465-mile waterway. This is another example of technology and coordinated planning leading to the Columbia Basin being put to multiple use. Specifically, a series of eight locks facilitates the passage of ships from the ocean to as far inland as Lewiston, Idaho. These locks are part of the same projects and reservoirs that produce hydropower and help control flooding.

From the ocean to Portland, Oregon and Vancouver, Washington dredging assures that a 40-foot-deep open river channel remains open year-long for ocean-going vessels. This 106-mile segment then connects with a 359-mile segment that extends to Lewiston, Idaho. Within this second segment, a 14-foot-deep channel for barges and other craft is kept open. To maintain this channel depth, maximum and minimum reservoir elevations are set. These elevations are determined within the context of meeting needs for electrical generation, flood control, and the release of water to help fish passage.

Irrigation

Another benefit that stems directly from the unique nature of the Columbia Basin is irrigation. In fact, six percent of the Columbia River Basin's yearly runoff is diverted to irrigate about 7.8 million acres of land. Much of the water that is diverted eventually finds its way back into the river system. Farmers in arid parts of eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, and southern Idaho depend on irrigation to support crops such as wheat, corn, potatoes, peas, alfalfa, apples, and grapes.

The Columbia Basin Project, for instance, turned the high desert area of central Washington into another bread basket for America. The centerpiece is the Grand Coulee Dam, which was built primarily as an irrigation project by the Bureau of Reclamation. Water stored behind Grand Coulee Dam in Lake Roosevelt is pumped into Banks Lake. This lake was formed by damming both ends of Grand Coulee, which is one of the geological formations that dates back to ice age floods. The water then flows through a system of tunnels and canals to irrigate croplands. The project irrigates over 500,000 acres and has the potential to be expanded to irrigate over 1.1 million acres. The Grand Coulee Dam is also used as a hydroelectric project and has the capacity to generate more electricity than any other hydroelectric project in North America.

The Bureau of Reclamation, local irrigation districts and water companies are examples of authorities that regulate how much water is diverted from the river system to support irrigation. Although scheduled locally, the cumulative effect of utilizing water from the river system to support large and small irrigation projects can be quite significant. As a result, those responsible for coordinated management of the river system estimate the effect of such diversions when determining reservoir levels. through accurate estimates, reservoir levels can be properly maintained to meet flood control, hydroelectric generation and irrigation needs.

One should also note that some areas and stretches of river are much more affected by irrigation than others. The effects on the Snake River are more pronounced than on the main stem of the Columbia. For instance, the Minidoka Project along the Snake uses water from six storage and two diversion dams. Thousands of miles of distribution canals then provide irrigation service to more than 1.1 million acres of farmland.

For these reasons, the issue of "water rights" has been a source of contention for quite some time. In Idaho, for instance, the state constitution grants "the right to divert and appropriate the unappropriated waters of any natural stream to beneficial uses." In other words, if you got there first you can keep diverting water for the "beneficial" purpose of irrigation. While contentious at a local and state level, the situation is made even more complex by recognizing that the Northwest as a whole is also affected. For example, because irrigation can cause less water to be available for reservoirs, flexibility in releasing water to support fish passage can be lost.

Recreation

Recreation is the last major benefit that will be discussed. This benefit is also somewhat different from the others. When hydroelectric and reservoir storage projects were proposed, more recreation was not the driving force behind their creation. rather, opportunities for new and additional recreation came with development of a project. Such opportunities were used to meet local and regional needs as well as address impacts caused by construction. Each year, for instance, about 450,000 thousand people pass through the Grand Coulee Dam Visitor Center.

Examples of recreation opportunities that stem from project development include fishing, swimming, waterskiing, picnicking, camping, hiking, rafting, boating and sightseeing. Often, developing these opportunities were part of receiving a license to develop and operate a project. Now that some of these projects are being relicensed, which generally occurs after a project has been in existence for 30 years, maintenance and further development of many recreation sites is being reviewed.